Comparison of Leadership Theories

Examination of Leadership Theories The foundation of connection among supporters and pioneers that emphasis on genuine changes and results that reflects through shared reasons for existing is essentially initiative. Authority likewise includes in making change not just in keeping up status quote. Another administration significant element is to bring individuals and make them comprehension to meet up around a typical vision and to achieve change wanted future. In numerous angles, the significance of administration is crucial without it families, networks and just as associations would go down separated. In other sense, the method of improving productivity, assurance, client assistance and execution is the basic part of authority. It is additionally basic for the associations to deal with basic circumstance and lead that adequately and just a decent pioneer with great authority capacity can lead group effectively. There are various styles of administration fundamentally it is way the individual arrangements with that s o as to remain alive in their position. These are dictator, law based and free enterprise.( Business:William M. Pride, Robert J. Hughes, Jack R. Kapoor,Cengage Learning, 2009 Political Science - p.179) In dictator initiative style, pioneer holds all the force and obligations. In this style, workers are doled out to explicit errand by the pioneer and hope to complete it organized. In free enterprise administration style, pioneer offers capacity to representatives. There are at least two elective choices taken by pioneer, representatives can pick any of them from that point it depends up to them. In law based authority styles, pioneer gives more significance on workers and attempts to empower them and demonstrates regard for people. Recorded, old style and contemporary way to deal with Leadership hypothesis: Historically there are numerous administration moves toward that connected with various speculations of initiative. Extraordinary Man hypothesis of initiative: 1900s: This is the soonest hypotheses of initiative. Around then the greater part of the analysts accepted that pioneers are conceived, not made. In Great Man hypothesis, portrays that the principle privileged insights of an incredible pioneer lies in being brought into the world extraordinary. It gives significance on the investigation of all the extraordinary pioneers who were incredible, might be they are from gentry or from the lower classes however they had the chances to lead. By discovering those individuals who did extraordinary things, for example, Nepolean, Hitler, Curchill on the off chance that we go further back, at that point Lord Krisna, Gesus and Hazrat Mohammad were anything but difficult to call attention to them. As indicated by Great Man hypothesis, it accepts that pioneers must have a few characteristics like great instructing power, cunning, great character, fearlessness, confidence; wildness and expressiveness that cant be had through learning or through specif ic educated programmes.(Organisational conduct by Hawa Singh,1st ed,2009-10,page-263)( Fire Service Leadership: Theories and Practices-Mitchell R. Waite, International Association of Fire Chiefs;Jones Bartlett Learning, 2008 Business Economics;page-3,4) Attribute Theories of Leadership: 1900s-1940: Trait hypotheses are like Great Man speculations here and there. It expect that pioneers must have general characteristics or individual highlights that they get by conceived and basic to all and make them better coordinated to initiative. In Trait Theory of authority simply attempted to discover characteristics of notable pioneer that were visit. This methodology depended on the plan that is uniqueness and individual natural worth that recognize fruitful pioneer structure every other person. In 1994, Yukl led research on attributes and abilities and connected to authoritative adequacy (Introduction to instructive initiative hierarchical conduct: hypothesis into practice,Patti L. Possibility, Edward W. Chance,Eye on Education, 2002,page.87). These were- Vitality and weight tolerance Confidence Inward locus of control Enthusiastic development Value Incomparability motivation Arriving at direction Requirement for alliance Situational Theories of Leadership: (Initiative in Organizations: There Is a Difference among Leaders and Managers, David, University Press of America, 2009, p 33) In situational hypotheses of initiative gives more significance on the various circumstances like where the undertaking to be cultivated, fit encompassed by characters, force and observations. Viability of initiative depends on those circumstances. These situational speculations are additionally called Contingency hypotheses since this Theory is dependent upon the prerequisites or the status of the circumstances. 1960s-70: In Contingency/situational hypothesis contends what pioneers play out that can be controlled by that circumstances and that practices must be connected with that ecological circumstances close by (Understanding Leadership Perspectives: Theoretical and Practical Approaches, By Matthew R. Fairholm, Gilbert W. Fairholm,2008,page.11). A decent situational pioneer can just apply distinctive authority styles with the evolving circumstances. The best activity taken by the pioneer relies upon of the pioneer relies upon a scope of situational factors. How the model functions just to accomplish results: Recognizable proof of definite occupation and undertaking Asses present execution Relating pioneer reaction Diverse initiative styles could impact by the wide scope of factors relying upon the distinctive ecological circumstances and it makes an effect on pioneer conduct, wherein pioneer can work. There are some basic possibilities like hierarchical volume, multifaceted nature in task, development of specialist thus numerous others. As indicated by situational hypothesis, situational factors are restricted and differ as per that possibility and determined conduct of pioneer can just work in specific sort of circumstances not for all. There are three most unmistakable hypotheses of possibility Way Goal hypothesis Feidlers Contingency hypothesis The Vroom-Yettons model Way Goal hypothesis: In this hypothesis basically center around pioneers persuasive capacity and it very well may be upgraded by expanding singular adjustments to subordinates for work objective accomplishment, increase individual fulfillment by heightening chances (House, 1971).According to these speculations key occupier is that the adequacy can be estimated through the practices of various pioneers that will be affected by situational factors. In more extensive sense it concentrated on starting course of action and reflection conduct of pioneers however later it reached out as participative and authority practices as far as accomplishment situated (House and Mitchell, 1974).there are two significant presumption on way Goal hypotheses of initiative (Leadershipã‚â edited by Linda L. Neider, Chester Schriesheim, IAP, 2002, page-116) Right off the bat, it worries with the appropriateness of pioneers conduct to the subordinates Besides, it worries with the inspirational components of pioneer (House and Mitchell, 1974). Reasonableness: Leader practices should be appropriate for the subordinates so it encourages them to work well with various circumstance. This great conduct of pioneer improves the general fulfillments of subordinates. Inspiration: The job of a pioneer is significant in persuading of workers for specific undertaking to expand the general execution. Fiedlers Contingency hypothesis: Overseeing hierarchical conduct: Henry, Neal P. Mero, John R. Rizzo Wiley-Blackwell, 2000 pages.461, 467 In 1971, Feidler proposed explanation on that how bunch execution can be influenced through the relations of initiative direction, bunch setting and occupation attributes. Pioneers circumstance can gauge however different degrees like connections among pioneers and individuals, structure of employment and position power (Fiedler, 1978). The connection among pioneer and part: This alludes to how the pioneer is enjoyed by the gathering individuals. At the point when great relationship exists among pioneers and individuals then all are get high fulfillment in work and associations esteems is accomplished through individual qualities. On the off chance that the connection is going severely, at that point there is absence of normal trust. Another significant term bunch cohesiveness, it is hard to make all the representatives cooperate when it low. On the off chance that it is high yet awful connection with pioneer, at that point bunch cooperates to hurt the association just as pioneer. Structure of occupations: It is ordered in two different ways like high assignment and low undertaking structure. In high assignment work structure pioneer should comprehend what the objective is and how to accomplish that. In low assignment structure work pioneer must settle on a choice how to perform task each an ideal opportunity to complete it. Position power: In high position power pioneer has position to take any significant choices without educating anybody to higher association levels. In low position power, pioneer has constrained position. The Vroom-Yettons model of administration: This model is broadly utilized in the advancement of initiative in corporate focus and furthermore gets enough help from specialists. (Mechanical and hierarchical brain science: connecting hypothesis with practice; By Cary L. Cooper, Edwin A. Locke, page-151,152)The most significant parts of this model is that legitimates both the imperious and fair pioneer conduct and coordinating that is reasonable in careful circumstances. This model additionally gives productive data about what might be the ideal time of utilizing gatherings or restricted to character dynamic. This model has a few constraints like pioneers are consistently need to take choice in picking of authority styles, it considers every choice in term of circumstance yet it doesn't rely upon past factor. Intellectual asset hypothesis: Intellectual Resource hypothesis is the change of Feidlers Contingency hypothesis. This hypothesis concentrated on character, habits and situational properties. Psychological asset hypothesis incorporates intellectual assets like individual sharpness, pragmatic information and expertise, work ability, into unique model. Presumptions: 1) Plans and procedures are conveyed through mandate conduct by troughs. 2) Experienced and more brilliant pioneers ha

The Renaissance North And South Free Essays

Southern Renaissance was increasingly mainstream contrasted with the Northern. Northern concentrated exclusively on religion. Southern concentrated more on workmanship, yet didn't dismiss religion totally Southern Europeans during the Renaissance concentrated on craftsmanship and religion, while the Northern Europeans made numerous establishments of higher realizing, where they showed viable learning, science, and innovation. We will compose a custom article test on The Renaissance North And South or on the other hand any comparable theme just for you Request Now The ‘Golden Age’ the same number of call it, is accepted to be the time in which Europe has at last begun to enter the ‘Modern Age. The Southern Renaissance (in Italy) started during the fourteenth century while the Northern Renaissance is accepted to have begun during the 1 the century. The Renaissance has expanded the notoriety of masterpieces and different fields of stud including: design, writing, sciences, governmental issues, and religion. There is many contrasts between the Southern and Northern Renaissance, and it is likewise founded on the idea of Humanism. Various specialists from the south and the north have demonstrated these distinctions in sees in their show-stoppers and their ideas in imagining the WA way individual carries on with their life. The Northern piece of Europe during those occasions was emphatically appended to the showing gas of Christianity. The congregation drove force, and humanists envisioned their general public as being all the more near God or nature as could be expected under the circumstances. The North held that Middle Ages conviction far longer than their Southern partner, and that is likewise the motivation behind why the greater part of their show-stoppers are about scenes and the ways of life of individuals. The Southern piece of Europe (Italy to be progressively exact) has an altogether different attitude toward how craftsmanship ought to be seen and acknowledged. Their craftsmen made artworks about Greg eek and Roman legends, about divine beings and goddesses, and they were continually looking for something new and better to make. The hues that they additionally created caused the meshes to appear to be alive yet not it could be said where the painting is the main thing that an individual can see. It’s progressively like the watcher can see the item and let his creative mind meander uninhibitedly. The format of the land may have likewise assumed a huge job on how the Renaissance occurred in the Northern and Southern pieces of Europe. Italy is a spot were exchange w rich, and they were presented to various societies (Asians and so forth). These GA them the alternative to create and find new things. Southerners imagine that religion I still significant, however it isn't the main need that they ought to center upon. Politic and different sciences were the things that individuals considered during those days, and that likewise changed their method of living. Northerners, then again, was not very presented to these progressions and still clung to their conviction of Jesus Christ and the congregation. The Southern and Northern Renaissance may have a great deal of contrasts, yet they make them thing in like manner: They esteemed craftsmanship. There even came when these specialists met and imparted their insights WI the one another. These prompted the production of better gems which are valued by t he world today. Rundown: 1 . The Southern Renaissance started during the fourteenth century while the Northern Renaissance was accepted to have begun during the sixteenth century. 2. The Northern Part of Europe is unequivocally connected to Christianity and the congregation. 3. The Southern Part of Europe during the Renaissance is progressively centered around the improvement of various fields of science including writing, design, legislative issues, a ND religion. 4. Work of art from the North depend on Humanism and Landscapes. 5. Work of art from the South are increasingly about Classical Greek and Roman Mythologies. Instructions to refer to The Renaissance North And South, Papers

IELTS Academic Essay Sample

IELTS Academic Essay SampleAn IELTS Academic Essay Sample PDF or Portable Document Format (PDF) document is great for presenting your research in a way that is easy to comprehend. But where does one find it? With the rising popularity of academic research, the need for better presentation styles has increased significantly.As with many other forms of academia today, there are many tools available to aid with presenting your research findings. But with the amount of information available today, many who would like to research anything do not have the time or resources to truly do it. The majority of the tools available for documentation in terms of scholarship are geared towards administrators, or those who need to have a certain set of information that they can then use as reference. This can be great, but not everyone has the luxury of time, and does not always have access to a computer to conduct their research.This can be seen in the rise of many people who choose to just take the word of what their professors, or the teaching staff at their college or university say, and base their educational experience on such reference information. This of course leads to a downfall, since many of these teaching staff will only provide their students with what they are comfortable with, or in their opinion, worthy of believing. In most cases, a teacher will choose to teach what the students want to learn, which creates a situation where they try to be what they believe the students want to hear, rather than what they know to be true.This of course can lead to frustration for the student, and even for the student's professor. It can also lead to them doing whatever they can to ensure that they pass their class, rather than being the exception to the rule. This can also lead to a worst case scenario, which is that the student ends up not graduating because they failed the class, or they did not get a letter of permission to leave campus. With such a situation, the student would have wasted a lot of time and money.In such situations, a teacher would be well advised to really take a close look at how their teaching style can be best changed to better suit the student, and to really put some effort into the hard work that the student has put in. They should then follow this up with more supportive and in depth feedback, and show them how they can do better. Doing this will not only encourage them to strive for better results, but also show them that their professors really do care about their learning experiences.With an IELTS Professional, an IELTS Academic Essay Sample PDF can be submitted via email and delivered straight to the student. This also comes with a cover sheet that the student can add to their own if they wish. Students will also be able to download the first chapter to be used as their reference guide to show how it can be utilized. Also included is the full-length sample essay that is available in PDF format.Those looking for easy to und erstand presentations of any type will find IELTS very handy for its ease of use. Teachers and students alike will also find it helpful, especially when they need to review for their test and see where they went wrong. With its Portable Document Format (PDF) features, it is a tool that can be easily transferred to a personal computer, or to a smart phone or a tablet, making it easy to take with you wherever you go.With all of the features and benefits that IELTS provides, it is not hard to see why so many have found it to be a good fit for their particular needs. With the many different forms of documentation that are available today, including both professionally written and free academic essay samples, students can feel better prepared to give it their best shot!

Micro And Macro Benefits Of Raising Cuny Community College...

Micro and Macro Benefits of Raising CUNY Community College Graduation Rates There are many micro and macro benefits associated with raising graduation rates. The following an overview of these benefits: Micro Benefits An individual who completes an AA degree has the potential to gain considerable benefits, including: †¢ The employment participation rate for individuals with an AA degree (68 percent) is higher than individuals with only a high school diploma (50 percent) (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). †¢ The average New Yorker aged 25 to 29 with only a high school diploma ($17,000) makes significantly less than individuals with â€Å"some college† coursework ($ 22,000), an AA ($ 29,000) degree and BA degree ($ 42,000) (Center for an Urban Future, 2013). †¢ A worker with an AA will earn almost $ 500,00 more than someone who only a high school diploma, and no further education (Ibid). †¢ College educated adults also enjoy â€Å"non-monetary† benefits, such as decreasing the likelihood of smoking and obesity (Ibid). †¢ The benefits of higher educational attainment does not simply benefit the individual who completes their degree, but their children are more likely to attain the same educational credentials, if not more (NYC Public Advocate, 2015). Macro Benefits There are several micro benefits with raising community college graduation rates. New York State and New York State would enjoy substantial benefits if graduation rates were raised. Raising the graduation

Friendship Is An Essential Aspect Of Human Happiness

The first relationship we experience, apart from what we have with our family, for the first time to explore our lives, is friendship. At this time, people tend to discover many of their strengths and flaws through having many friends and feel emotions that they have never felt before. Friends help shape who we are and where we fit in society, always learning and improving through one another. Many philosophers today and in the past will agree that friendship is an essential aspect of human happiness. Friendship is understood as a distinctively personal relationship that is grounded in a concern on the part of each friend for the welfare of the other, for the other’s sake, and that involves some degree of intimacy (Helm). But what exactly†¦show more content†¦Friendship based on utility and pleasure become selfishness. Human naturally set up relationships, going from person to person, for personal gain. Aristotle describes these kinds of friendship to be easily dissol ved and forgotten, for they are easily split apart. (Aristotle) We can see these types of relationships in businesses or parties, where people greet each other and create small talk, but no real relationship is present. Their motivation and objective is to get what they need and move on as quickly as possible. According to Aristotle, this type of friendship pertains mostly to younger people, who are advantageous, for they â€Å"...are at such a time of life pursue not what is pleasant but what is beneficial.† (Aristotle) For example, a regular customer at a pizza restaurant might quickly transition to a newly opened restaurant that provides better service for a cheaper price. Furthermore, utility and pleasure are desires that are influenced by passions and feelings, which are constantly and abruptly changing. Aristotle says that people in this state â€Å"...quickly become friends and quickly stop...† and â€Å"...love and stop loving quickly...† (Aristotle) The se relationships are unstable and unpredictable which might cause more harm than good. Aristotle moves on by showing that a perfect friendship is based on goodness

Rhetorical Analysis Of On The Briefcase, Poor Americans...

Rhetorical Analysis Essay: â€Å"On The Briefcase, Poor Americans Have ‘Prove’ Themselves,† In Margaret Lyons’s Vulture article, â€Å"On the Briefcase, Poor Americans have to ‘Prove’ Themselves,† was posted on May 26, 2015. Lyons discusses how ‘The Briefcase’ follows â€Å"Middle Class† American families that are experiencing financial hardships. The context of this article is economical situations present in American â€Å"middle class† families, as represented on a television show viewed all over the world. Lyons exigence is how the game show is purposely exploiting middle class Americans are using their setbacks against each other. She supports her claims with the ethos through opinionated information such as the real reason why the briefcase actually helps middle class people; logos, sharing the evidence on Les Moonves on how they make more money than the game show does in a month, pathos; how a woman is so overcome with joy she vomits. Initially, Lyons begins her article with an ethical appeal as she shares the exploitation of middle class Americans. As she began to get in depth with how the game show is an embarrassment, she shows only in view of the argument, which is disagreeing with everything that they are doing. The game show is a disappointment to society, the show lets us think that they are helping middle class families. Lyons stated, But there s something really perverse about Les Moonves earning money based on the emotional and financial anguish of poor people, by

Auditing Standards Executive Committee

Question: Discuss about the Auditing Standards Executive Committee. Answer: Introduction: IFRS Practice Statement -Application of Materiality to Financial Statements was drafted with the aim of assisting the management in determining what entails materiality when applying this concept to general purpose financial statements ('American Institute of Certified Public Accountants,' 2006). Ideally, information or data would be considered material if misstating or omitting it could influence the decisions of users to make about a particular reporting entity, that is, the perception of the users of that entity. For instance, if material information is misstated, the users of the financial statements may have a wrong impression about the company making them invest in the firm and thus realizing a financial loss in the future. This draft provided guidance on materiality characteristics, and application of the concept of materiality in deciding whether to present and disclose information. Besides, provided guidance on assessing whether omissions and misstatements are material (Aren s, Elder, Mark, 2012). This question of this research paper provides an analysis into these three areas as well as the recognition and measurement of materiality. Characteristics of Materiality According to IFRS, information is material if omitting or misstating it could change the perception or the decisions that the users of the financial statements make based on that financial information about the entity that is reporting the financial statements (Arens, Best, Shailer, Fiedler, Elder, Beasley, 2007). Ideally, the purpose of an audit is to enhance the confidence of users in the financial statements of an organization. The auditor, therefore, has to express an opinion on the true and fair view of the financial statements of the reporting entity stating whether in all material aspects the financial statements have been prepared in agreement with IFRS. The information would, therefore, be considered material if the magnitude of its misstatement or omission would make it probable that it would affect the judgment of a reasonable person that relies on that information. Materiality has four key features, namely: pervasiveness, relevance, reliability, and whether some informat ion has been omitted or misstated. Information is considered reliable if it assures the users of the financial statements that it is free from any biased or error and that it represents what it was supposed to represent. Apparently, if that information was not free from any error or biasedness and it was used by the users of the financial statements, then it would be regarded to be material (Boynton, Johnson, 2006). Information is relevant if it has a high capacity to influence the decisions of the users of the financial statements in that the information could help the users make predictions about the past, present and future events of the entity. The information will be considered pervasive if the benefits of the users of the financial statements using it outweigh the costs. Ideally, each user of the financial information will perceive the value attached to the quality information in a unique way (Cosserat, Rodda, 2009).Ultimately, a standard body such as the IFRS has to assess the information presented and disclosed to the public to ensure that it meets their needs. Besides, the body must be aware of the calculus of costs and benefits and make sure that the information presented and disclosed meets this calculus. To justify the need for a particular disclosure, the IFRS must ascertain that the benefits perceived to be derived from that disclosure exceed the costs associated with it. The last characteristic of materiality is to ensure that some information has been misstated, omitted, it contains error or biasedness. This calls for an auditor to perform an analysis on the financial statements of the reporting firm and as asc ertain whether any information has been misstated or omitted, that is, whether the financial statements presented portray an accurate and fair view of the financial reporting of the firm and does not mislead its users. Application of the Concept of Materiality when Making Decisions about Presentation and Disclosure of Information In preparing the financial statements, the management of the reporting entity ought to consider their objective. The main aim of firms is providing information that is useful to its users to enable them to assess the prospects of the company for its expected cash inflows in the future and to allow them to evaluate the stewardship of the resources of the entity. If a particular information that has been generated by the business affects the decisions of a user, then that information ought to be presented and disclosed in the financial statements. To apply this concept, one must also consider if the financial reporting is pervasive (Hayes, Wallage, Gortemaker, 2014). The information will be ubiquitous if the benefits of using it outweigh the accrued costs. This is a concept that can be used to apply the concept of materiality when making decisions about the presentation and disclosure of financial information. It would be useful in deciding whether to disclose in that any information that is perceived to be pervasive is material to the financial statements and therefore it should be tested for material misstatement to ascertain that it is free from any biasedness or error. Assessment of whether Omissions and Misstatements of Financial Information are Material In assessing the materiality of the financial statements, one must identify that the omissions and distortions could influence the economic decisions of the users of the financial statements. Judgments about whether the omissions and misstatements would be material to the financial statements are based on surrounding circumstances and are affected by the size and nature of the distortion (Ismail, Haron, Nasir Ibrahim, Mohd Isa, 2006). To identify whether the omission or misstatement is material, an auditor must assess the information needs of the users of the financial statements. For instance, an investor would be interested in the financial statements to ascertain whether the money that he lends to a business is being used for the right purpose as stated in their Memorandum of Association. The auditor's determination as to whether the omission or misstatement of financial information is material is dependent on his professional judgment. When an auditor understands this, he will b e able to assess what omission or misstatement is material. Recognition and Measurement Finally, the IFRS Practice Statement states that the IFRS recognition and measurement requirements need to be applied to ascertain that the omission or misstatement of the financial information is material to the financial statements (Porter, Simon, Hatherly, 2014). This would call for the auditor recognizing the material misstatement in his report and the extent to which it affects the users. An auditor is mainly concerned about two issues, namely: Big Data' and End-to-End Software Integration.' Big data describes an extensive portfolio of a firm that contains unstructured and machine-generated data. The point is that big data will have an impact on risk management, which is an area of primary concern to auditors (Rennings, Ziegler, Ankele, Hoffmann, 2006). Ideally, big data and analytics have the potential of enabling auditors to identify errors, fraud, financial reporting, and business risks and to deliver a more consistent audit. The first issue concerning big data is data capture. Many companies strive to invest in protecting their data. This is a matter since it makes it hard for auditors to obtain client's approval on the data. Moreover, auditors encounter companies with different accounting systems and embracing big data would mean extracting the sub-ledger information and thus familiarizing themselves with the various accounting systems used. This, therefore, inc reases the complexity of data extraction. Using data analytics to obtain audit evidence may be difficult, as auditors are required to find a balance between their personal judgment and the results of the analytics. They, therefore, have to consider substantive analytical procedures, validation of the data for analytics purposes, and defining of the audit evidence, which is time-consuming, and thus a primary issue. Another problem that is inherent to auditors is End-to-End Software Integration. End to end software integration in auditing perspective entails ensuring that the user interfaces meet their needs and ensure that there is a smooth flow of information from the company to the user (Rittenberg, Johnstone, Gramling, 2010). Ideally, a perfect end-to-end software integration allows customers limitless capabilities, communication, and dynamic change of business logics. End to end software integration may be an issue to auditors since the audit approach that they use, whether auditing through the computer or auditing around the computer, may leave some loopholes unattended. End to end software integration contains transmission of big data and performing an audit of that big data may be time-consuming. This is because the auditors may be required to have an understanding of the different accounting systems used by the firm and thus retrieve sub-ledger information, which may be complicated for those auditors who are not conversant with the various accounting systems. Ultimately, the audit firms may be necessitated to train their staff on the different accounting systems used by companies thus leading to wastage of time and resources. For the audit committees, time has never been more challenging. Cybersecurity and other technological disruptions, economic volatility, a political and regulatory risk that affect today's corporate boards including oversight of risk have filtered down to the audit committee. The disruptive trends context, in this case, looks at the technological risk, political and economic risk, the evolution of financial reporting, and the increasing complexity of the regulatory landscape (KPMG.com, 2016). Technical Risk The technological risk is a major concern for the audit committees such as the cyber security risk. With the advancement of cyber attacks, cyber security remains a major oversight for the audit committees (Rittenberg, Johnstone, Gramling, 2010). Ideally, they are more concerned with challenges such as data protection, social engineering, auditing of third parties, cyber insurance, and remediation procedures. Political and Economic Risk Second, the political, and economic risk is also a major disruptive trend for the audit committees. With the fall in the prices of oil, a weak dollar, and an increase in political uncertainty around the globe, exercising an oversight on the political and economic risk has to become a priority (Wang, Chow, Wang, Ren, Lou, 2013). It is a disruptive trend since as companies seek to enter the emerging markets, they have to balance between the exposure to bad and good risks given the current economic challenges. For instance, in some industries such as the oil and gas sector, the fundamental question of disruption and risk such as corporate survival and operational problems becomes a more pressing issue. The audit committees, therefore, have to narrow down their agenda to the going concern level that can enable these companies to sustain in the worse economic period. Evolution of Financial Reporting The development of financial reporting is a third disruptive trend that the audit committees need to include in their agenda. With the ongoing changes in the corporate world, companies are mandated to ensure strategic reporting (Wang, Wang, Ren, Lou, 2010). Here, the board of directors is required to discuss the main trends and factors that are likely to affect future development, financial position, and performance of their company. Ideally, the board is required to use financial and non-financial metrics such as the balanced scorecard and the Strategic Performance Measurement System (SPMS) to highlight the trends and factors (Zadek, Evans, Pruzan, 2013). This is a disruptive trend since it requires the audit committees to ensure that companies present and disclose Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) in their annual reports. The Increasing Complexity of the Regulatory Landscape Lastly, the increasing complexity of the regulatory landscape has proved to have a disruptive trend or effect of companies as well as their audit committees (William Jr, Glover, Prawitt, 2016). The main aim of this increasing complexity of regulations is to prevent the occurrence of another global financial crisis like the one that occurred in 2008. Some emerging regulatory issues include aligning of classification and measurement of financial instruments with risk management, recognition of revenue from contracts, accounting for leases, re-classifying of insurance contracts, anti-money laundering, and privacy legislations (Yang, Jia, 2013). As a result, the audit committees ought to equip themselves with knowledge on these emerging and disruptive trends of the regulatory landscape. References American Institute of Certified Public Accountants. Auditing Standards Executive Committee. (2006).Codification of Statements on Auditing Standards. Commerce Clearing House. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Arens, A. A., Elder, R. J., Mark, B. (2012).Auditing and Assurance services: an integrated approach. Boston: Prentice Hall. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Arens, A. A., Best, P., Shailer, G., Fiedler, B., Elder, R. J., Beasley, M. (2007).Auditing and assurance services in Australia: an integrated approach. Pearson Education Australia. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Boynton, W. C., Johnson, R. N. (2006).Modern Auditing: Assurance services and the integrity of financial reporting. Wiley. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Cosserat, G. W., Rodda, N. (2009).Modern auditing. Wiley. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Hayes, R., Wallage, P., Gortemaker, H. (2014).Principles of auditing: an introduction to international standards on auditing. Pearson Higher Ed. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Ismail, I., Haron, H., Nasir Ibrahim, D., Mohd Isa, S. (2006). Service quality, client satisfaction, and loyalty towards audit firms: Perceptions of Malaysian public listed companies.Managerial auditing journal,21(7), 738-756. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. KPMG.com. (2016). Audit Trends 2016. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017 from https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/pdf/2016/05/Audit-Trends-2016.pdf/ Porter, B., Simon, J., Hatherly, D. (2014).Principles of external auditing. John Wiley Sons. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Rennings, K., Ziegler, A., Ankele, K., Hoffmann, E. (2006). The influence of different characteristics of the EU environmental management and auditing scheme on technical, environmental innovations and economic performance.Ecological Economics,57(1), 45-59. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Rittenberg, L. E., Johnstone, K. M., Gramling, A. A. (2010). Auditing: A business Risk Approach. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Wang, C., Chow, S. S., Wang, Q., Ren, K., Lou, W. (2013). Privacy-preserving public auditing for secure cloud storage.IEEE Transactions on Computers,62(2), 362-375. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Wang, C., Wang, Q., Ren, K., Lou, W. (2010, March). Privacy-preserving public auditing for data storage security in cloud computing. InInfocom, 2010 Proceedings IEEE(pp. 1-9). IEEE. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. William Jr, M., Glover, S., Prawitt, D. (2016).Auditing and Assurance services: A systematic approach. McGraw-Hill Education. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Yang, K., Jia, X. (2013). An efficient and secure dynamic auditing protocol for data storage in cloud computing.IEEE transactions on parallel and distributed systems,24(9), 1717-1726. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017. Zadek, S., Evans, R., Pruzan, P. (2013).Building corporate accountability: Emerging practice in social and ethical accounting and auditing. Routledge. Retrieved on 23rd January 2017.

Butler Lumber Essay Example

Butler Lumber Paper Why has Butler Lumber borrowed increasing amounts despite its consistent profitability? How has Mr.. Butler met the financing needs of the company during the period 1 988 through 1 990? (It would be helpful to develop a cash flow analysis (use vs.. Source) and the cash flow statement based upon the income statement and the balance sheet provided in the case for the period of 1988 to 1990. Through the period of 1988 to 1 990 Mark Butler has met the needs of financing through decreasing the amount of cash the company carries, by increasing bank loans, by increasing the size of accounts payable, and by carrying net income over into retained earnings. The needs of this cash was generated by the loan to Mr.. Stark as M. B. Needed this money to buy out Mr.. Starks share in the company, an increase in account receivable, an increase in inventories, and an increase in fixed assets. Working capital turned out to make up a use Of 68% during the years 1 988 to 1990. The buy out of Mr.. Stark made up 22% of the use of cash. Source bank note payable 49%, trading credit 28%, retained earnings 16%. All in all Mr.. Butler has been using the wrong sort of financing to raise funds. If you were to make a comparison as to how Mr.. Butler has been generating funds thus far it would be like financing a mortgage with a credit card. 2. Has the financial strength of Butler Lumber improved or deteriorated? The ratios show that the strength of Butler Lumber is slowly deteriorating. Their current ratio has been slowly going down from 1. To 1 2, if this continues it will only be a matter often until Butler Lumber will no longer be able to cover their current liabilities with their current assets. Along with this the company is growing more and more leveraged from 54. 5% in 1988 to 71. % in 1992. As their working capital decreased through the years and into the projection BAL average payment period is increasing from 35 days to 47 days. It will not be long until t heir vendors grow tired of the slow payments, not to mention the fact that BAL is not taking advantage of the vendors 2% discount by paying in ten days from the purchase. We will write a custom essay sample on Butler Lumber specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Butler Lumber specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Butler Lumber specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Bless times interest earned is growing smaller also. In 1988 Bless TIE figure was 3. 8 but now the estimated figure for 1992 is 1. 9. This means that Bless BIT is becoming increasingly lower relative to the interest that they must pay out on loans. . Does rapid sales growth always result in a need for substantial external finance? (Hints: exam asset management, does the efficiency of using assets at Butler align with its rapid sales growth? ) In this case MBA needed a loan to buy out Mr.. Starks interest so that in itself caused a need for external financing. Generally when companies experience rapid sales growth they do need substantial external financing. As sales increase accounts such as A/P, A/ R, and inventory always increase also, which creates a demand for more funds, for instance in net working capital. This is needed so that the business can operate smoothly, make their payments on time, absorb increases in accrued expenses, and meet the needs of countless other needs of cash that come along with increases in sales. The speed at which sales are growing is the reason why a company needs external financing, assuming that the company doesnt have a rich uncle with 4. How attractive is it to take the trade discounts? A 2% percent discount will result in a savings of $41000 in 1991 and $60,000 in 1 992, which will increase net income significantly to 58,000 in 1991 and $73,000 in 1992. The increased savings in net income will show up in retained earnings and will provide a source of cash for the coming year which will in turn reduce the amount of external financing that the company needs. The annual cost of not taking this discount works out to be 20% Once again this shows that Mr.. Butler is not using the best source of financing because he could take out a loan at a much lower rate of interest to pay his bills in 10 days and save quite a bit of money. 5. Do you agree with Mr.. Butlers estimate of the companys loan requirements? That is, will a credit line of $465,000 be sufficient to meet the Meanys needs beyond 1 991 if it takes the trade discounts? How much will Mr.. Butler need to finance the expected expansion in sales to $3. 6 million in 1991 and to take all trade discounts? (Develop projected income statement and balance sheet, and then estimate the financial needs. ) If MBA takes the 465,000 line of credit and does not take the trade discount he will be able to operate through the year of 1991 but he will need even more money to continue into 1992. By not taking the trade discount BAL will not be running very efficiently and their current ratio will continue to get worse. If Mr.. Butler does take the trade discount the projected external financing for 1991 is $666,000 so it seems that the 465 thousand line of credit will not be enough for BAL to continue experiencing the rapid growth. 6. Would you, as Mr.. Dodge, agree to lend Butler the money needed? This is a tough call based just upon these numbers. It seems a bit risky for the bank to extend this financing to BAL. I do not have industry figures or what the current home building growth is projected to be. It mentions in the book that MBA thinks that even if home building slows residential remodeling will continue to rive his sales. I think that Mr.. Dodge should recommend BAL to scale back sales growth to a more manageable rate. 33% sales growth per year is very high. History shows us growth at this rate never continues year after year. Additionally, growth at this rate generally causes financial problems and lower chances for the companys survival over the long run. As things are going right now Mr.. Dodge probably would not grant this loan. 7. What are the alternatives open to Mr.. Butler if Mr.. Dodge refuses his request for an increased credit line?

Foods Role in the Evolution of the Human Jaw

Foods Role in the Evolution of the Human Jaw You may have heard the old adage that you should chew your food, especially meat, at least 32 times before you try to swallow it. While that may be overkill for some types of soft food like ice cream or even bread, chewing, or lack thereof, may have actually contributed to the reasons human jaws became smaller and why we now have smaller numbers of teeth in those jaws. What Caused the Decrease in Size of the Human Jaw? Researchers at Harvard University in the Department of Human Evolutionary Biology now believe that the decrease in size of the human jaw was, in part, directed by the fact that human ancestors began to â€Å"process† their foods before they ate them. This does not mean adding artificial colors or flavors or the type of processing of food we think of today, but rather mechanical changes to the food such as cutting meat into smaller pieces or mashing fruits, vegetables, and grains into bite sized, small jaw friendly amounts. Without the large pieces of food that needed to be chewed more times to get them to pieces that could be swallowed safely, the human ancestors’ jaws did not have to be so large. Fewer teeth are needed in modern humans compared to their predecessors. For instance, wisdom teeth are now considered vestigial structures in humans when they were necessary in many of the human ancestors. Since jaw size has considerably gotten smaller throughout the evolution of humans, there is not enough room in some people’s jaws to comfortably fit the extra set of molars. Wisdom teeth were necessary when humans’ jaws were bigger and the food needed more chewing to be fully processed before being able to be swallowed safely. The Evolution of Human Teeth Not only did the human jaw shrink in size, so did the size of our individual teeth. While our molars and even bicuspids or pre-molars are still larger and flatter than our incisors and canine teeth, they are much smaller than the molars of our ancient ancestors. Before, they were the surface upon which grains and vegetables were ground into processed pieces that could be swallowed. Once the early humans figured out how to use various food preparation tools, the processing of the food happened outside of the mouth. Instead of needing large, flat surfaces of teeth, they could use tools to mash these types of foods on tables or other surfaces. Communication and Speech While the size of the jaw and the teeth were important milestones in the evolution of humans, it created more of a change in habits besides just how many times food was chewed before swallowed. Researchers believe the smaller teeth and jaws led to changes in communication and speech patterns, may have something to do with how our body processed changes in heat, and could even have affected the evolution of the human brain in areas that controlled these other traits. The actual experiment performed at Harvard University used 34 people in different experimental groups. One set of groups dined on vegetables early humans would have had access to, while another group got to chew on some goat meat- a type of meat that would have been plentiful and easy for those early humans to hunt and eat. The first round of the experiment involved the participants chewing completely unprocessed and uncooked foods. How much force was used with each bite was measured and the participants spit back out the fully chewed meal to see how well it was processed. The next round â€Å"processed† the foods the participants would chew. This time, the food was mashed or ground up using tools the human ancestors may have been able to find or make for food preparation purposes. Finally, another round of experiments were performed by slicing and cooking the foods. The results showed that the study participants used less energy and were able to eat the processed foods much more easily than those that were left â€Å"as is† and unprocessed. Natural Selection Once these tools and food preparation methods were widespread throughout the population, natural selection found that a larger jaw with more teeth and oversized jaw muscles were unnecessary. Individuals with smaller jaws, fewer teeth, and smaller jaw muscles became more common in the population. With the energy and time saved from chewing, hunting became more prevalent and more meat was incorporated into the diet. This was important for early humans because animal meat has more calories available, so more energy was then able to be used for life functions. This study found the more processed the food, the easier it was for the participants to eat. Could this be why the mega-processed food we find today on our supermarket shelves are often high in caloric value? The ease of eating processed foods is often cited as a reason for the obesity epidemic. Perhaps our ancestors who were trying to survive by using less energy for more calories have contributed to the state of modern human sizes.

BAM 306 - Princibles of Marketing-unit 4 essay question # 2

BAM 306 - Princibles of Marketing-unit 4 question # 2 - Essay Example Therefore a produces tend to use a wholesalers rather than selling it directly to the retailers because of the functions performed by the wholesalers, which are mentioned below: Selling and promoting: The sales force of the wholesalers helps the manufacturers to reach a wide range of customers including many small customers at a low price or cost. This is because the wholesales have more contacts and are trusted by the buyers than the manufacturers. Bulk breaking: Wholesalers buys products in carload lots which helps the customers to save their money and in return bulk break which means breaking of large lots into smaller quantities and finally selling it to the retailers. Transportation: The wholesalers being closer to the buyers provide a much more efficient and quick delivery of items than the producers. Thus producers usually prefer the channel of distribution which involves the wholesalers. Financing: The wholesalers provides its customers as well as suppliers with an advantage of financing as they provide credit to the customers and for the suppliers, they finance them by ordering at an earlier date but paying the bill on time. This is one of the strong reasons why the producer prefers wholesalers rather than selling items directly to the retailers. Risk Bearing: The wholesalers are responsible for any theft, damage, obsolesce and spoilage of the product. The wholesalers absorb the risk by taking the title of all the uncertainty that might occur during the course of action. Market information: Since the wholesalers are aware of the market situation, they provide information to the customers and suppliers about competition, price developments and introduction of any new products. Management services and advice: The wholesalers provides management services and also incurs training for the sales people, helps in renovating the store layouts and displays and also sets inventory and accounting control systems

Education and Common Core Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Education and Common Core - Research Paper Example They rank the countries based on their performance in mathematics, sciences and reading. Since 2000, the USA has been falling below average in the three subjects and this year it was ranked 17th among the 34 countries of the OECD. USA scores poorly in mathematics and in a recent research, they were ranked 26th out of the 34 countries. From the test given by the OECD ranking researchers, only 9% of the USA students proved to be top performers in mathematics as compared to 61% in other countries such as china (OECD Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/unitedstates/CN%20-%20United%20States.pdf). According to a report by PISA, USA spends the highest funds on education and are in the same rank with Luxembourg, Norway and Switzerland. However, their spending does not translate into better education since USA lags behind the countries whoa similar amount in education. Social classes and economic differences in the USA have played a part in their low education performance. Other countries such as Finland, japan and Norway, who have high-income disparities, did not show a difference in education levels based on income. However, in the USA, income levels determine the quality of education that one student get. PISA confirmed that most resilient students in the USA proved to have low educational performance. The USA education is lower than expected due to poor systems and lack of consideration to low-income earners. When the common core standards were developed, there were intended to prepare students for college education. However, the system has terribly failed due to a number of reasons. Moreover, the system only focused on students who could make it to college and did not consider those who failed to go to college (Beck 59). The system is a shared set of standards for English, mathematics and art that identifies the learning outcomes needed in order help students prepare for careers

VLSI Design and Embedded Systems

VLSI Design and Embedded Systems CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Motivation Phase locked loop (PLL) [1-3] is the heart of the many modern electronics as well as communication system. Recently plenty of the researches have conducted on the design of phase locked loop (PLL) circuit and still research is going on this topic. Most of the researches have conducted to realize a higher lock range PLL with lesser lock time [4] and have tolerable phase noise. The most versatile application of the phase locked loops (PLL) is for clock generation and clock recovery in microprocessor, networking, communication systems, and frequency synthesizers. Phase locked-loops (PLLs) are commonly used to generate well-timed on-chip clocks in high-performance digital systems. Modern wireless communication systems employ Phase Locked Loop (PLL) mainly for synchronization, clock synthesis, skew and jitter reduction [5]. Phase locked loops find wide application in several modern applications mostly in advance communication and instrumentation systems. PLL being a mixed signal circuit i nvolves design challenge at high frequency. Since its inspection in early 1930s, where it was used in the synchronization of the horizontal and vertical scans of television, it has come to an advanced form of integrated circuit (IC). Today found uses in many other applications. The first PLL ICs were available around 1965; it was built using purely analog component. Recent advances in integrated circuit design techniques have led to the development of high performance PLL which has become more economical and reliable. Now a whole PLL circuit can be integrated as a part of a larger circuit on a single chip. There are mainly five blocks in a PLL. These are phase frequency detector (PFD), charge pump (CP), low pass loop filter (LPF), voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) and frequency divider. Presently almost all communication and electronics devices operate at a higher frequency, so for that purpose we need a faster locking PLL. So there are a lot of challenges in designing the mentioned different blocks of the PLL to operate at a higher frequency. And these challenges motivated me towards this research topic. In this work mainly the faster locking of the PLL is concentrated by properly choosing the circuit architectures and parameters. The optimization of the VCO circuit is also carried out in this work to get a better frequency precision. 1.2 Organization of Thesis Before going into the details of the PLL, the motivation behind this work is mentioned in the Chapter 1 of the thesis. Chapter 2 briefly describes the whole PLL system. An introduction to the PLL circuit is mentioned in the section 2.1. Section 2.2 contains the detail architecture of the whole PLL system. Different types of PLLs are mentioned in the section 2.3. Section 2.4 explains the basic terms used in the PLL system while the consecutive sections give the details about the noise and application of the PLL. Chapter 3 builds the concepts of optimization. Definition of optimization technique and different circuit optimization techniques are presented in section 3.1 and 3.2 respectively. Section 3.3 gives the brief outline of the concept of geometric programming and convex optimization. The optimization of the CSVCO circuit is explained in section 3.4. The design and synthesis of the PLL is described in Chapter 4. The different design environments used in this work is mentioned in the section 4.1. The adopted design procedure is explained in section 4.2. Section 4.3 gives the design specifications and parameters of the work. The simulation results of the different circuits used in the PLL are depicted in the different sections of the Chapter 5. The performance of the CSVCO designed using convex optimization is compared with that of the traditional method in section 5.3. Section 5.5 gives the different simulation results of the PLL and its performance comparison between schematic and post layout level. At last Chapter 6 provides the conclusion that inferred from the work. CHAPTER 2 PHASE LOCKED LOOP 2.1 Introduction A PLL is a closed-loop feedback system that sets fixed phase relationship between its output clock phase and the phase of a reference clock. A PLL is capable of tracking the phase changes that falls in this bandwidth of the PLL. A PLL also multiplies a low-frequency reference clock CKref to produce a high-frequency clock CKout this is known as clock synthesis. A PLL has a negative feedback control system circuit. The main objective of a PLL is to generate a signal in which the phase is the same as the phase of a reference signal. This is achieved after many iterations of comparison of the reference and feedback signals. In this lock mode the phase of the reference and feedback signal is zero. After this, the PLL continues to compare the two signals but since they are in lock mode, the PLL output is constant. The basic block diagram of the PLL is shown in the Figure 2.1. In general a PLL consists of five main blocks: Phase Detector or Phase Frequency Detector (PD or PFD) Charge Pump (CP) Low Pass Filter (LPF) Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) Divide by N Counter The â€Å"Phase frequency Detector† (PFD) is one of the main parts in PLL circuits. It compares the phase and frequency difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock. Depending upon the phase and frequency deviation, it generates two output signals â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN†. The â€Å"Charge Pump† (CP) circuit is used in the PLL to combine both the outputs of the PFD and give a single output. The output of the CP circuit is fed to a â€Å"Low Pass Filter† (LPF) to generate a DC control voltage. The phase and frequency of the â€Å"Voltage Controlled Oscillator† (VCO) output depends on the generated DC control voltage. If the PFD generates an â€Å"UP† signal, the error voltage at the output of LPF increases which in turn increase the VCO output signal frequency. On the contrary, if a â€Å"DOWN† signal is generated, the VCO output signal frequency decreases. The output of the VCO is then fed back to the PFD in or der to recalculate the phase difference, and then we can create closed loop frequency control system. 2.2 PLL Architecture The architecture of a charge-pump PLL is shown in Figure 2.2. A PLL comprises of several components. They are (1) phase or phase frequency detector, (2) charge pump, (3) loop filter, (4) voltage-controlled oscillator, and (5) frequency divider. The functioning of each block is briefly explained below. 2.2.1 Phase Frequency Detector The â€Å"Phase frequency Detector† (PFD) is one of the main part in PLL circuits. It compares the phase and frequency difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock. Depending upon the phase and frequency deviation, it generates two output signals â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN†. Figure 2.3 shows a traditional PFD circuit. If there is a phase difference between the two signals, it will generate â€Å"UP† or â€Å"DOWN† synchronized signals. When the reference clock rising edge leads the feedback input clock rising edge â€Å"UP† signal goes high while keeping â€Å"DOWN† signal low. On the other hand if the feedback input clock rising edge leads the reference clock rising edge â€Å"DOWN† signal goes high and â€Å"UP† signal goes low. Fast phase and frequency acquisition PFDs [6-7] are generally preferred over traditional PFD. 2.2.2 Charge Pump and Loop Filter Charge pump circuit is an important block of the whole PLL system. It converts the phase or frequency difference information into a voltage, used to tune the VCO. Charge pump circuit is used to combine both the outputs of the PFD and give a single output which is fed to the input of the filter. Charge pump circuit gives a constant current of value IPDI which should be insensitive to the supply voltage variation [8]. The amplitude of the current always remains same but the polarity changes which depend on the value of the â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN† signal. The schematic diagram of the charge pump circuit with loop filter is shown in the Figure 2.4. When the UP signal goes high M2 transistor turns ON while M1 is OFF and the output current is IPDI with a positive polarity. When the down signal becomes high M1 transistor turns ON while M2 is OFF and the output current is IPDI with a negative polarity. The charge pump output current [3] is given by IPDI=IPUMP—IPUMP4Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =2IPUMP4Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =IPUMP2Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =KPDIÃâ€"ΔÎ ¦ (1) Where KPDI=IPUMP2Ï€ (amps/radian) (2) The passive low pass loop filter is used to convert back the charge pump current into the voltage. The filter should be as compact as possible [9].The output voltage of the loop filter controls the oscillation frequency of the VCO. The loop filter voltage will increase if Fref rising edge leads Fin rising edge and will decrease if Fin rising edge leads Fref rising edge. If the PLL is in locked state it maintains a constant value. The VCO input voltage is given by Vinvco = KF Ãâ€" IPDI (3) Where KF is the gain of the loop filter. 2.2.3 Voltage Controlled Oscillator An oscillator is an autonomous system which generates a periodic output without any input. The most popular type of the VCO circuit is the current starved voltage controlled oscillator (CSVCO). Here the number of inverter stages is fixed with 5. The simplified view of a single stage current starved oscillator is shown in the Figure 2.5. Transistors M2 and M3 operate as an inverter while M1 and M4 operate as current sources. The current sources, Ml and M4, limit the current available to the inverter, M2 and M3; in other words, the inverter is starved for current. The desired center frequency of the designed circuit is 1GHz with a supply of 1.8V. The CSVCO is designed both in usual manner as mentioned in [3], [10, 11]. The general circuit diagram of the current starved voltage controlled oscillator is shown in the Figure 2.6. To determine the design equations for the CSVCO, consider the simplified view of VCO in Figure 2.5. The total capacitance on the drains of M2 and M3 is given by Ctot=52Cox(LpWp+LnWn) (4) The time it takes to charge Ctot from zero to VSP with the constant current ID4 is given by t1=VSPID4Ãâ€"Ctot (5) While the time it takes to discharge Ctot from VDD to VSP is given by t1=VDD-VSPID1Ãâ€"Ctot (6) If we set ID4= ID1=ID then the sum of t1 and t2 is given by t1+t2=VDDIDÃâ€"Ctot (7) The oscillation frequency of CSVCO for N number of stage is fosc=1Nt1+t2=IDNCtotVDD (8) This is equal to fcenter when Vinvco=VDD2 (9) The gain of the VCO is given by KVCO=fmax-fminVmax-Vmin HzV (10) 2.2.4 Frequency Divider The output of the VCO is fed back to the input of PFD through the frequency divider circuit. The frequency divider in the PLL circuit forms a closed loop. It scales down the frequency of the VCO output signal. A simple D flip flop (DFF) acts as a frequency divider circuit. The schematic of a simple DFF based divide by 2 frequency divider circuit is shown in the Figure 2.7. 2.3 Types of PLL There are mainly 4 types of PLL are available. They are . Liner PLL Digital PLL All Digital PLL Soft PLL 2.4 Terms in PLL 2.4.1 Lock in Range Once the PLL is in lock state what is the range of frequencies for which it can keep itself locked is called as lock in range. This is also called as tracking range or holding range. 2.4.2 Capture Range When the PLL is initially not in lock, what frequency range can make PLL lock is called as capture range. This is also known as acquisition range. This is directly proportional to the LPF bandwidth. Reduction in the loop filter bandwidth thus improves the rejection of the out of band signals, but at the same time the capture range decreases, pull in time becomes larger and phase margin becomes poor. 2.4.3 Pull in Time The total time taken by the PLL to capture the signal (or to establish the lock) is called as Pull in Time of PLL. It is also called as Acquisition Time of PLL. 2.4.4 Bandwidth of PLL Bandwidth is the frequency at which the PLL begins to lose the lock with reference. 2.5 Noises in PLL The output of the practical system deviates from the desired response. This is because of the imperfections and noises in the system. The supply noise also affects the output noise of the PLL system [12]. There are mainly 4 types of noises. They are explained below. 2.5.1 Phase Noise The phase fluctuation due to the random frequency variation of a signal is called as phase noise. This is mostly affected by oscillators frequency stability. The main sources of the phase noise in PLL are oscillator noise [12-15], PFD and frequency divider circuit. The main components of the phase noise are thermal and flicker noise. 2.5.2 Jitter A jitter is the short term-term variations of a signal with respect to its ideal position in time [16-19]. This problem negatively impacts the data transmission quality. Jitter and phase noise are closely related and can be computed one from another [18]. Deviation from the ideal position can occur on either leading edge or trailing edge of signal. Jitter may be induced and coupled onto a clock signal from several different sources and is not uniform over all frequencies. Excessive jitter can increase bit error rate (BER) of communication signal [19]. In digital system Jitter leads to violation in time margins, causing circuits to behave improperly. 2.5.3 Spur Non-desired frequency content not related to the frequency of oscillation and its harmonics is called as â€Å"Spur†. There are mainly two types of spur. They are reference spur and fractional spur. Reference spur comes into picture in an integer PLL while fractional spur plays a major role in fractional PLL. When the PLL is in lock state the phase and frequency inputs to the PFD are essentially equal. There should not be any error output from the PFD. Since this can create problem, so the PFD is designed such that, in the locked state the current pulses from the CP will have a very narrow width as shown in the Figure 2.9. Because of this the input control voltage of the VCO is modulated by the reference signal and thus produces â€Å"Reference Spur† [20]. 2.5.4 Charge Pump Leakage Current When the CP output from the synthesizer is programmed to the high impedance state, in practice there should not be any current flow. But in practical some leakage current flows in the circuit and this is known as â€Å"charge pump leakage current† [20]. 2.6 Applications of PLL The demand of the PLL circuit increases day by day because of its wide application in the area of electronics, communication and instrumentation. The recent applications of the PLL circuits are in memories, microprocessors, hard disk drive electronics, RF and wireless transceivers, clock recovery circuits on microcontroller boards and optical fiber receivers. Some of the PLL applications are mentioned below. 1. Frequency Synthesis A frequency synthesizer is an electronic system for generating a range of frequencies from a single fixed time base or oscillator. 2. Clock Generation Many electronic systems include processors of various sorts that operate at hundreds of megahertz. Typically, the clocks supplied to these processors come from clock generator PLLs, which multiply a lower-frequency reference clock (usually 50 or 100 MHz) up to the operating frequency of the processor. The multiplication factor can be quite large in cases where the operating frequency is multiple GHz and the reference crystal is just tens or hundreds of megahertz. 3. Carrier Recovery (Clock Recovery) Some data streams, especially high-speed serial data streams (such as the raw stream of data from the magnetic head of a disk drive), are sent without an accompanying clock. The receiver generates a clock from an approximate frequency reference, and then phase-aligns to the transitions in the data stream with a PLL. This process is referred to as clock recovery. 4. SkewReduction This is one of the very popular and earliest uses of PLL. Suppose synchronous pair of data and clock lines enter a large digital chip. Since clock typically drives a large number of transistors and logic interconnects, it is first applied to large buffer. Thus, the clock distributed on chip may suffer from substantial skew with respect to data. This is an undesirable effect which reduces the timing budget for on-chip operations. 5. Jitter and Noise Reduction One desirable property of all PLLs is that the reference and feedback clock edges be brought into very close alignment. The average difference in time between the phases of the two signals when the PLL has achieved lock is called the static phase offset. The variance between these phases is called tracking jitter. Ideally, the static phase offset should be zero, and the tracking jitter should be as low as possible. CHAPTER 3 CONVEX OPTIMIZATION OF VCO IN PLL 3.1 What is an optimization technique? Optimization technique is nothing but the finding of the action that optimizes i.e. minimizes or maximizes the result of the objective function. Optimization technique is applied to the circuits aiming at finding out the optimized circuit design parameter to achieve either the best performance or the desired performance. Optimization techniques are a set of most powerful tools that are used in efficiently handling the design resources and there by achieve the best result. Mainly optimization techniques are applied to the circuit for the selection of the component values, devices sizes, and value of the voltage or current source. 3.2 Types of circuit optimization method There are mainly four types of circuit optimization methods exist. They are Classical optimization Knowledge based optimization Global optimization method Convex optimization and geometric programming 3.2.1 Classical Optimization Methods: In case of analog circuit CAD, classical optimization methods [21], such as steepest descent, sequential quadratic programming, and Lagrange multiplier methods are mainly used. These methods are used with more complicated circuit models, including even full SPICE simulations in each iteration. This method can handle a wide variety of problem. For this there is a need of a set of performance measures and computation of one or more derivatives. The main disadvantage of the classical optimization methods is that the global optimal solution is not possible. This method fails to find a feasible design even one exist. This method gives only the local minima instead of global solution. Since many different initial designs are considered to get the global optimization, the method becomes slower. Because of the human intervention (to give â€Å"good† initial designs), the method becomes less automated. The classical methods become slow if complex models are used. 3.2.2 Knowledge-Based Methods: Knowledge-based and expert-systems methods such as genetic algorithm or evolution systems, systems based on Fuzzy logic, and heuristics-based systems have also been widely used in analog circuit CAD [21]. In case of knowledge based methods, there are few limitations on the types of problems, specifications, and performance measures that are to be considered. These methods do not require the computation of the derivatives. This is not possible to find a global optimal design solution using these methods. The final design is decided on the basis of the initial design chosen and the algorithm parameters. The disadvantage of the knowledge based methods is that they simply fail to find a feasible solution even when one may exist. There is a need of human intervention during the design and the training process. 3.2.3 Global Optimization Methods: Global optimization methods such as branch and bound and simulated annealing are also used in analog circuit design [21]. These methods are guaranteed to find the global optimal design solution. The global optimal design is determined by the branch and bound methods unambiguously. In each iteration, a suboptimal feasible design and also a lower bound on the achievable performance is maintained by this method. This enables the algorithm to terminate non-heuristically, i.e., with complete confidence that the global design has been found within a given tolerance. The branch and bound method is extremely slow, with computation growing exponentially with problem size. The trapping in a locally optimal design can be avoided by using simulated annealing (SA). This method can compute the global optimal solution but not guaranteed. Since there is no real-time lower bound is available, so termination is heuristic. This method can also handle a wide variety of performance indices and objects. T he main advantage of SA is that it handles the continuous variables and discrete variables problems efficiently and reduces the chances of getting a non-globally optimal design. The only problem with this method is that it is very slow and can not guarantee a global optimal solution. 3.2.4 Convex Optimization and Geometric Programming Methods: Geometric programming methods are special optimization problems in which the objective and constraint functions are all convex [22-24]. Convex optimization technique can solve the problems having a large number of variables and constraints very efficiently [22]. The main advantage of this method for which people generally adopt is that the method gives the global solution. Infeasibility is unambiguously detected. Since a lower bound on the achievable performance is given, so the method uses a completely non- heuristic stopping criterion. 3.3 Geometric programming and convex optimization Geometric programming is a special type of optimization technique in which all the objective must be convex. Before applying this technique it has to confirm that whether the given problem is convex optimization problem or not. Convex optimization problem means the problem of minimizing a convex function subject to convex inequality constraints and linear equality constraints. In IC integration convex optimization and geometric programming has become a more efficient computational tool for optimization purpose. This method has an ability to handle thousands of variables and constraints and solve efficiently. The main advantage of convex optimization technique is that it gives the global optimized value and the robust design. The fact that geometric programs can be solved very efficiently has a number of practical consequences. For example, the method can be used to simultaneously optimize the design of a large number of circuits in a single large mixed-mode integrated circuit. The de signs of the individual circuits are coupled by constraints on total power and area, and by various parameters that affect the circuit coupling such as input capacitance, output resistance, etc. Convex optimization is used to find out the optimized value of these parameter and sizing of the devices in the circuit [25]. Another application is to use the efficiency to obtain robust designs i.e., designs that are guaranteed to meet a set of specifications over a variety of processes or technology parameter values. This is done by simply replicating the specifications with a (possibly large) number of representative process parameters, which is practical only because geometric programs with thousands of constraints are readily solved. A real valued function fx defined on an interval (space) is called convex if ftx1+1-tx2≠¤tfx1+1-tfx2 (11) For every t,0 In the Figure 3.1 function fx is represented as a convex function on an interval. The convex optimization problem is in the form of minimize f0x Subjected to fix≠¤1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, m gix=1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, p xi>1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, n Where fix is a posynomial function gix is a monomial function Let x1,x2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦xn be n real positive variables. We can denote the vector (xi,xi†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.xi) of these variables asx. A function f is called a posynomial function of x if it has the form fix1,x2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦xn=k=1tCkx1ÃŽ ±1kx2ÃŽ ±2k†¦..xnÃŽ ±nk (12) Where Cj≠¥0 and ÃŽ ±ij à Ã‚ µ R. The coefficients Cj must be nonnegative but the exponents ÃŽ ±ij can be any real numbers including negative or fractional. When there is exactly one nonzero term in the sum i.e. t=1 and C1>0, we call f is a monomial function. 3.3.1 Advantages:  § Handle thousands of variables and constraints and solve efficiently.  § Global optimization can be obtained. 3.3.2 Disadvantages: * Strictly limited to types of problems, performance specification and objectives that can be handled. 3.4 Optimization of the VCO circuit In my earlier design of the VCO circuit, the sizes of all the five inverter stages are same. Now the convex optimization technique is applied to find out the optimal scaling ratio of the different inverter stages to get the optimal design with a better performance. There are 5 inverter stages and the design has to give a delay of 100ps. The load capacitance of the VCO circuit is 65 fF. All these design constraints are formulated and applied to the convex optimization technique. Mainly optimization techniques are applied for selection of component values and transistor sizing. In this work I have used the geometric programming technique to find out the optimized scaling ratio of the different stages in CSVCO to meet the desired center frequency with lesser deviation. Let xi is the scaling ration of the ith stage, CL is the load capacitance, and D is the total delay of the inverter stages then optimization problem is in the form of Minimize sum (xi) Subjected to CL≠¤CLmax D≠¤Dmax Where CLmax and Dmax are required design parameters and has a constant value. CHAPTER 4 DESIGN AND SYNTHESIS OF PLL 4.1 Design Environment The schematic level design entry of the circuits is carried out in the CADENCE Virtuoso Analog Design Environment. The layout of the PLL is designed in Virtuoso XL using GPDK090 library. In order to analyze the performances, these circuits are simulated in the Spectre simulator of CADENCE tool. Different performance indices such as phase noise, power consumption and lock time are measured in this environment. Transient, parametric sweep and phase noise analyses are carried out in this work to find out the performances of the circuit. The optimization of the current starved VCO circuit, the scale factor for transistor sizing is found out using the MATLAB environment. 4.2 Design Procedure 4.2.1 VCO Design Since VCO is the heart of the whole PLL system, it should be designed in a proper manner. The design steps for the current starved VCO are as follows. Step 1 Find the value of the propagation delay for each stage of the inverter in the VCO circuit using the following equation. Ï„p=1Nf (13) Where Ï„p= Ï„phl= Ï„plh= half of the propagation delay time of the inverter N= no of inverter stages f= required center frequency of oscillation Step 2 Find the WL ratio for the transistors in the different inverter stages using the equation in below. WL n=CloadÏ„phl µnCoxVdd-VT,n2VT,nVdd-VT,n+ln4Vdd-VT,nVdd-1 (14) WL p=CloadÏ„plh µpCoxVdd-VT,p2VT,pVdd-VT,p+ln4Vdd-VT,pVdd-1 (15) Step 3 After finding the WL ratio, find the values for W and L. Step 4 Find the value of the total capacitance form the expression Ctot=52Cox(LpWp+LnWn) (16) Where Cox is the oxide capacitance Lp,Wp,Ln,Wn is the width and length of the PMOS and NMOS transistors in the inverter stages. Step 5 Calculate the value of drain current for the center frequency which is given by IDcenter=NCtotVddf (17) Step 6 Find the WL ratio for the current starving transistors in the circuit from the drain current expression which is represented as WL n=2Ãâ€"IDcenter µnCoxVgs-VT,n2 (18) Similarly WL p=2.5Ãâ€"WL n (19) 4.2.2 Design of Phase Locked Loop The value of the charge pump current and the component parameters of the loop filter play a major role in the design of the phase locked loop circuit. The value of the lock time mainly depends upon these parameters. So while designing the circuit proper care should be taken in calculating these parameters. For the given values of reference(Fref) and output frequency(Fout) as well as the lock in range, the following steps to be carried out in designing the filter circuit. Step 1 Find the value of the divider circuit to be used which is given by n=FoutFref (20) Step 2 Find the value of the natural frequency (ωn) from the lock in range as given below lock in range=2Ãâ€"ÃŽ ¾Ãƒâ€"ωn (21) Step 3 Find the value of the charge pump gain (KPDI) from the charge pump current used in the circuit which is given by KPDI=Ipump2Ï€ (Amps/radian) (22) Step 4 Find the value of the gain of the VCO (Kvco) circuit from the characteristics curve using the following expression. Kvco=fmax-fminVmax-Vmin (Hz/V) (23) Step 5 Find the values of the loop filter component parameters using the following expressions. C1=KPDIÃâ€"KvcoNωn2 (24) C2=C110 (25) R=2ÃŽ ¾Ãâ€°nC1 (26) 4.3 Design Specifications and Parameters 4.3.1 VCO Design Specification The current starved VCO design specifications are mentioned in the following table. Table 1 VCO design specifications 4.3.2 VCO Design Parameters Table 2 List of design parameters of the CSVCO circuit 4.3.3 PLL Design Parameters The whole PLL system design specifications and parameters are shown in the Table 3. Parameter Value Reference frequency((Fref) 500 MHz output frequency(Fout) 1 GHz Lock in range 100 MHz

Ethnics and Heritage Destroyed George in Gloria Naylor’s Mama Day :: Gloria Naylor Mama Day Essays

Ethnics and Heritage Destroyed George in Gloria Naylor’s Mama Day It has been said before that opposites attract when it comes to love. In Gloria Naylor’s Mama Day, two people who would seemingly never end up together somehow find a way to form a relationship that eventually leads to a marriage. George and Cocoa, the two lovers featured in this book, come from backgrounds that could not be more unlike the other. How they end up falling in love is close to a miracle, but because of their huge difference in background, they bring to each other what they wish they could have in themselves. While George is a man who comes from the diverse and strictly governed big city atmosphere of New York, Ophelia is a woman who was raised on the island of Willow Springs which is inhabited by descendants of slaves and is subject to racism and disregard for normal conduct in society. New York is a place where science and facts control the decisions of life; Willow Springs has many rituals based on magic and superstition. Because the two locations are so incre dibly opposite from one another, it is difficult for George to believe in anything that Cocoa was raised on. However, in order for George to get Mama Day’s approval, he must believe and understand magic as it exists in Willow Springs both in its physical form and as a form of belief. The biggest influence of magic on the island of Willow Springs is Mama Day. A descendant of the legendary Sapphira Wade, Mama Day is said to have convinced her master to give the land that is Willow Springs to the slaves, for which she â€Å"†¦bore him seven sons in less than a thousand days, to put a dagger through his kidney and escape the hangman’ noose, laughing in a burst of flames.† (Naylor 3) The influence of Sapphira’s magic is carried over into Mama Day, as it is said that she could, â€Å"†¦walk through a lighting storm without being touched; grab a bolt of lightning in her hand; use the heat of lightning to start the kindling going under the medicine pot.† (Naylor 3) For a rational minded person like George, this and some of the other traditions can be hard to accept. One such example of George’s ideas of normal human behavior clashing with Mama Day’s occurs when Mama Day and Grandmother Abigail give the married couple a quilt made entirely of articles of clothing from past generations.

India and Pakistan: Most Different Systems

It is a cardinal truth that one of the most important factors in the political environment of the Asiatic region is the relationship between India and Pakistan. The system analysis with regard to India and Pakistan is a most interesting affair for an obvious reason. It shows how a people who had lived together for centuries can drift apart on communal question. Not only that, it also shows that due to differences in political culture the two states have, in spite of an equal start, chosen two divergent ways. As such, their fundamental differences have become clearly visible and practically speaking, it is very difficult, if not impossible to bridge the gulf. Particularly, their conflict has, in the meanwhile, turned this Asiatic region into a storm centre which may at any time trigger off a nuclear holocaust. Above all, this political tension has merged with global politics and, hence, the problem has become more acute. Before August 15, 1947, India was a unified state. The two dominions – India and Pakistan – came into being as separate states on that very day as a result of communal frenzy and blood-strained riots. It is a significant fact that the British rule was introduced in India by overthrowing the Muslim rulers and, hence, the Muslim community had a bitter hatred of the British. This hatred soon turned into an enmity with the western culture as well as their science and literature. But the Hindus accepted English and, thus, soon they were acquainted with the western culture and their thoughts – specially the concepts of liberty. As such, political consciousness grew up rapidly and in 1885, the Congress came into being as a national organization for political agitation. Though it was a secular entity and many Muslims joined it with a genuine eagerness, some Muslim leaders dubbed it as a Hindu organization and Sayid Ahmed, in particular, taught the Muslims that their interests were different and even at cross purposes. Thus, a counter movement came to the fore, swearing loyalty to the British. â€Å"The British also pulled strings behind the scene† (De, 103). In this way, the British authorities pursued the ‘Divide and Rule’ policy for its own interests and, thus, the gulf began to enlarge. With the British encouragement, the Muslim League was formed in 1906 for acting as a counterpoise for the Congress. Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy, once observed that ‘fifty millions of men were themselves a nation and a very powerful nation’. Similarly, Lord Salisbury, the Secretary of state for India announced that ‘it would be impossible for England to hand over the Indian Muslims to the tender mercies of hostile majority’. The British government was, thus, sowing the seeds of Pakistan more than half a century before it was actually born (Chopra, 16). But the elections of 1937 under the government of India Act hastened the crisis. While the Congress captured power in eight provinces, the league was totally disillusioned. The poor election results convinced Jinnah, the League-leader, that the only way to counteract the Congress was to inflame communal feelings among the Muslims (Sen, 263). Soon, in 1940, the League passed the Pakistan resolution for a separate state (Moon, 41). The rift soon reached the boiling point. The differences bitterly came up during the Cripps Mission and Cabinet Mission. Jinnah called for the ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16th August 1946 which resulted in a terrible blood bath. Soon an interim cabinet was formed – but it was torpedoed by the League Ministers (Bose, 135). It was, thus, realized that the two communities would not be able to live together – on August 15, 1947, two Dominions came up after a partition. Basic Differences Though both India and Pakistan had an equal start, the differences have become discernible which are discussed hereunder as follows: Political: Constitutional India has adopted a democratic system in which the actual power resides on the people. The central and provincial cabinets are, under Art 75 (2) and   Art 164 (1), responsible to the Lok Sabha and local Assembly respectively, which are composed by popular election. Moreover, Art 326 has granted the right to vote to each person irrespective of class, creed, religion etc. after reaching the age of 18. Thus, this is a dynamic representative democracy (Basu, 23). However, soon after the birth of Pakistan, it came under military dictatorship. Though on occasions, civil governments came to power, it is primarily a military system virtually from 1969 (Agarwal, 422). Foreign Policy: India has adopted the principal of non-alignment in its foreign policy when in the post war period most of the states joined either of the two power blocs, India, along with a few other nations, adopted the policy of equidistance from them. It means the independence of action. India’s foreign policy does not allow herself to follow a previously defined path. This independence of action enables India to judge each issue in its own merits and without any prejudice (Keswani, 512). But, in order to enlist American support on the Kashmir issue, Pakistan, soon after its birth, joined the American bloc. Pakistan sought artificial strength by her alliance with America and through SEATO and the Baghdad pact (Khanna, 78). But, curiously, after the Sino-Indian war of 1962 (when America came forward with its men, machines and money to save India from a probable Chinese destruction), Pakistan entered into a friendly treaty with China, a stalwart of communist camp. It means, unmistakably, that Pakistan has no consistency in its foreign policy. Most surprisingly, while Pakistan resorted to a friendly relation with America, it is also maintaining (at least reportedly) a positive relation with the Middle Eastern states – some of whom are even arch rivals of the United Sates. Its main consideration is enmity with India. Party System India had, initially, a ‘one party dominant system’ (Morris-Jones, 215). However, with its gradual eclipse, coalition politics has spread over the country. It obviously implies some alliances and compromises among the leaders of various parties for directing the political affairs. But, Pakistan is dominated not by the political leaders, but by the military Generals. One General has captured power by removing another through military coup. Thus, politics has been dominated there by militarism and an understanding between the Government and the Opposition has been a rare affair. Religious India has accepted the principle of secularism which implies governmental impartiality in religious affairs. Its Preamble has granted ‘liberty of thoughts, expressions, faith, beliefs and worship’. Moreover, Articles 25, 26, 27 and 28 have been the sheet anchor secularism (Johari, 394). Above all, by the 42nd amendment of 1976, it has inserted the term ‘Secular’ in the Preamble. Thus, religious tolerance is the basic feature of the Indian system. But, Pakistan is an Islamic country which has accepted Islam as the state religion. However, on the morning of July 13, 1947, Jinnah declared Minorities, to whichever community they may belong, will be safeguarded. Their religion, or faith or belief will be protected in every way possible. Their life and property will be secure. There will be no interference of any kind with their freedom of worship. They will have their protection with regard to their religion, their faith, their life, their property, and their culture. They will be, in all respects, citizens of Pakistan without any distinction of caste or color, religion or creed. (qtd. in Kauba 89) However, being a typical Islamic state, Pakistan accepted Islam as the state-religion and, in most cases, knows no tolerance of other faiths. The laws are based on ‘Sheriyat’ which is claimed to be derived from the sacred Quran. In such states, ‘Ulemas’ and ‘Imams’ guide the social and religious life and a sharp discrimination exists between the Muslims and the other subjects living within the state. People belonging to other creeds such as the Christians, the Buddhists, and the Hindus etc. are looked down upon and seldom treated with dignity and honor. The public sectors hardly tolerate any of these creeds at higher designation in the organizational hierarchy. Moreover, the educational syllabus is over burdened with religious lessons instead of practical industrial requirements. Economic Economic systems of the two countries are quite different. India adopted a unique blend of the ideals of socialistic and capitalistic economies. Since the early 1950s it has been proceeding towards economies of development through Five Year Plans (Bhattacharya, 1). It is thus a planned economy with big private sectors. Since its globalization and liberalization policies of 1992, giant multinationals throughout the world has shown serious interest on the Indian market. Resultantly, India has emerged as the fastest growing and the fourth largest economy of the world (Paul, 215). However, Pakistan has adopted purely a capitalistic economy where planning has no place at all. Due to its religious intolerance, political disorders, and dictatorial environment the foreign companies are often too much hesitant to invest in that market. Natural Resources India is much richer in natural resources. It has a vast territory where different types of agricultural crops are produced and mineral resources are harvested. In comparison, Pakistan is surly poor. Rice and wheat are the main crops. It has some mineral wealth, textiles, jute and tea – (Clement, 64). Some Problems Problems Both India and Pakistan are disturbed by some acute problem. After the gradual erosion of the Congress, a multi – party chaos has gripped India and it has evoked political atmosphere. There are nearly 350 political parties and most of them are leased upon narrow opportunism. Naturally, the task of nation-building has been cast down by such trifling conflicts. Economically also, India is facing a crisis. In spite of planned endeavor for five decades, a gross disparity of income and wealth has been. Communalism is also a formidable problem. Hindu-Muslim conflict has become a common affair and there may be riots just for anything or nothing (Das, 400) In foreign affairs too, some problems seem to be insoluble. With America and China, two super-powers, its relationship is less than normal. Pakistan, its neighbor, is the worst enemy and, Bangladesh, for which it fought in 1971, has drifted far away. Pakistan is, similarly, disturbed with some crucial problems. The conflict between the Siyas and Sunnis often result in severe blow-birth. Moreover, some political parties often agitate against the autocratic Government and it ultimately results in awful bloodshed. But, above all, while there is a large-scale poverty, a considerable part of the national income is to be diverted to the war-preparation. In fact, the Government has to encourage a frenzied bellicosity in its relations with India in order to mobilize public support. In 1949, Pakistan was pushed back in Kashmir and in 1951, 1965 and 1971 it suffered a terrible defeat by India. So the Pak-rulers have been forced to adopt a war-economy, though the national poverty badly needs a peace-time growth-program. Nuclear Preparation   It is interesting to note that fear of war has compelled both India and Pakistan to enter into a race of armament. Thus, through a prolonged endeavor both of them have now become atomic power. But, it is well known that fear of war increases armament and increase of armament increases the fear of war. In this way, their rivalry has ushered in an era of permanent panic. If a war actually breaks out, it would be profitable to none, because the nuclear bombardment would surely bring about a total catastrophe for not only the belligerents but also for the entire region. For this reason, some sort of understanding is urgently necessary. Of course, Kashmir is the bone of contention between them and none is prepared to give up its claim over this strategic spot. But, unless some compromise is reached, the conflict of Kashmir might one day, obliterate the both of them from the global map. Conclusion But, by any means, they must find out a way towards the lasting peace. It is interesting to note that though Germany was divided into two parts after the Second World War. However, they have, after five decades, merged together. In this sense, India and Pakistan cannot, perhaps in the near future, mingle together in this way. But, for realistic reasons, they must come nearer and build up a workable relationship. Of course, Kashmir has stood up as the stumbling obstacle. But mutual war and conflicts can never bring about a peaceful solution. Only an understanding on the basis of ‘give and take’ policy can solve the problem which has thrice dragged them into armed conflict. Particularly, Pakistan must remember that it has no legal claim over Kashmir. Before the partition of undivided India, the Instrument of Accession offered the Princely states the right to join either of the two Dominions. The king of Kashmir (Hari Sing) duly signed a treaty with India for joining it. (Mahajan, 343). The portion of Kashmir (Pak occupied Kashmir) which is now under Pakistan’s control, was captured only by illegal infiltration by several terrorist groups. Hence, it is beyond any iota of doubt that history can go a long way in setting the problem to the right perspective. Works Cited Agarwal, R.G. Political Theory, Chandra Books, Allahabad, 1996, 422 Basu, D.D. Introduction to the Constitution of India, Prentice Hall, 1978, 23 Bhattacharya, D.C. India’s Five Year Plans, Joy Library, Calcutta, 1996, 1 Bose, N.S. Indian National Movement, Pharma K.L.M. Pvt. Ltd, 1974, 135 Chauba, K.L. India and Pakistan, Raj Kamal Publications, New Delhi, 1948, 49 Chopra, P.N. India’s Struggle for Freedom, Publications Division, 1984, 16 Das, H.H. India: Democratic Government and Politics, Himalaya Publications, New Delhi, 1991, 400 De, B. Freedom Struggle, Publications Division, New Delhi, 1992, 103 Johari, J.C. Indian Government and Politics, Vishal Publishing House, New Delhi, 394 Kauba, K.L. Inside Pakistan, Raj Kamal Publications, New Delhi, 1948, 89 Keswani, K.B. International Relations, Himalaya Publishing, Mumbai, 1996, 512 Khanna, V.H. Foreign policy of India, Vikas Publishing, Chennai, 1997, 78 Mahajan, V.D. The Constitution of India, Modern Books, New Delhi, 1979, 343 Moon, P. Divide and Quit, Modern Books, Mumbai, 41 Morris-Jones, W.H. Government and Politics of India, B.I. Publications, New Delhi, 1979, 215 Sen, S.N. History of Freedom Movement in India, New Age Publications, 1978, 263